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Stretching across nine countries, with Brazil containing the largest portion at 58.4%. The remaining eight countries include Peru at 12.8%, Bolivia at 7.7%, Colombia at 7.1%, Venezuela at 6.1%, Guyana at 3.1%, Suriname at 2.5%, French Guiana at 1.4%, and Ecuador at 1%, the Amazon River Basin is renowned as the world's most extensive drainage system. The Amazon Basin provides vital sustenance for the planet's most vast rainforest, which constitutes over fifty per cent of the earth's total rainforest volume. Covering over 2.7 million square miles (7 million square kilometres) across nine countries in South America. It is often referred to as the "lungs of the Earth," as it produces over 20% of the world's oxygen. The Amazon River, which runs through the rainforest, is the second-longest river in the world, stretching over 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometres) from its source in the Andes Mountains to its mouth in the Atlantic Ocean. The Amazon rainforest is home to over 30 million people, including more than 400 indigenous groups, who rely on the forest for their livelihoods. The rainforest is also home to over 40,000 plant species, 1,300 bird species, 3,000 fish species, and countless other animals. This biodiversity is vital to the health of the planet and provides many ecological services, such as carbon sequestration, water regulation, and soil fertility.
HISTORY
Etymology
Human Activities
Archaeological evidence of human activity in the Amazon comes from the Caverna da Pedra Pintada site in northern Brazil, where rock art dating back 11,200 years depicts hunting scenes and other activities. As human populations grew, communities in the Amazon developed complex social structures and cultural practices. They established trade networks exchanging goods such as salt, feathers, and shells that extended across the region and beyond. They developed religious and spiritual beliefs, worshipping animals and plants
The neighbouring tribes of Jivaro, including the Shuar, were known for their headhunting practices. Yanomami tribes were plagued with constant infighting, leading to a significant number of male deaths due to warfare. The Munduruku tribe, who lived along the Tapajós River, was feared by other neighbouring tribes due to their reputation as a warlike tribe and were pacified and subjugated by the Brazilians in the early 19th century. The Panará, an uncontacted Amazon tribe, gained notoriety in 1961 after they killed British explorer Richard Mason.
Europeans first arrived in the Amazon in the late 15th century. Spanish and Portuguese explorers, missionaries, and colonizers sought to exploit the region's natural resources, including gold, rubber, and timber. The Amazon rubber boom, which took place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, had devastating consequences for the native Amazonian populations, with an estimated 40,000 deaths due to diseases brought in by immigrant workers.
During the 19th and 20th centuries, the development of steamboats and railroads allowed for easier access to the Amazon and accelerated the region's exploitation. The rubber boom of the late 1800s brought an influx of workers to the region and led to the establishment of large plantations. In the 1950s, a Brazilian explorer named Cândido Rondon supported the Villas-Bôas brothers' campaign, which aimed to establish the first Brazilian National Park for indigenous people along the Xingu River. The campaign faced strong opposition from the government and ranchers in Mato Grosso, but ultimately succeeded in creating the park in 1961.
Natural
The Andes Mountains range began to rise about 23 million years ago, and as it grew, it created a rain shadow effect that led to the formation of the Amazon Basin, a vast area characterized by high temperatures, humidity, and rainfall.
The deposition of ash and other materials from the eruption of volcanoes helped to fertilize the soil and create new habitats for plants and animals.
Ecological interactions, such as pollination, seed dispersal, and predator-prey relationships, helped shape the rainforest's evolution. The presence of predators helped to shape the evolution of prey species, driving the development of new adaptations and strategies for survival.
The Amazon River and its tributaries helped to shape the landscape and create a network of waterways that allowed for the dispersal of plant and animal species throughout the region. The river transported nutrients and sediments from the Andes Mountains and other parts of the continent to the rainforest. As the river flooded the lowlands, it deposited nutrient-rich sediment that helped to fertilize the soil and support the growth of a diverse range of plant species.
BIODIVERSITY, FLORA AND FAUNA
The Amazon rainforest is the most biodiverse place on Earth, with a vast and diverse ecosystem that is home to tens of thousands of tree species, millions of insect species, tens of thousands of plant species, species of birds and mammals
The Amazon rainforest is home to an estimated 16,000 tree species. The most well-known and iconic tree species in the Amazon include the Brazil nut tree, the towering kapok tree, and the rubber tree, which played a key role in the region's historical economy. Other important tree species found in the Amazon rainforest include mahogany, cedar, and palm tree, which provides food and shelter for a wide variety of animals.
The Amazon rainforest is home to over 1,500 bird species making up one-third of all bird species in the world. Some iconic bird species found in the Amazon include the scarlet macaw, toucans, parrots, and the hoatzin, which is mostly referred to as the "stink-bird" due to its unique digestive system. These bird species are known for their colourful plumage and unique behaviours, such as the toucan's oversized beak and the parrot's ability to mimic human speech. Birds in the Amazon rainforest play crucial ecological roles as pollinators, seed dispersers, and predators. They are often revered as sacred animals by many indigenous communities in the region.
The Amazon rainforest is home to an estimated 427 mammal species, including jaguars, tapirs, anteaters, monkeys, armadillos, sloths, and various species of bats. These animals are vital for seed dispersal, pollination, and maintaining the balance of predator and prey populations.
Approximately 1,200 species of reptiles and 2,500 species of amphibians in the Amazon rainforest. This includes snakes, lizards, turtles, frogs, toads, and salamanders. Well-known reptiles in the Amazon include anacondas, caimans, and iguanas. Meanwhile, some of the most iconic amphibians found in the Amazon include poison dart frogs, tree frogs, and salamanders.
The Amazon rainforest is home to an estimated 2.5 million insect species, including butterflies, beetles, and ants. The well-known insect groups found in the Amazon rainforest include butterflies, beetles, ants, termites, grasshoppers, and crickets. These insects are important pollinators, decomposers, and predators, and are vital to the complex food webs that sustain the rainforest ecosystem. One particularly interesting group of insects found in the Amazon rainforest are the leafcutter ants, which can be found in huge colonies that can stretch for kilometres. These ants are known for their incredible ability to cut and carry pieces of leaves many times their own body weight, which they use to cultivate fungi that they feed on.
Another fascinating insect found in the Amazon rainforest is the bullet ant, which has one of the most painful stings in the world. Despite its painful sting, the bullet ant plays an important role in the rainforest ecosystem as a predator of other insects and a source of food for other animals.
The Amazon rainforest is home to tens of thousands of Iconic plant species including the giant Amazon water lily, the Brazilian nut tree, and the cacao tree, which is the source of chocolate. The Amazon rainforest is also known for its vast expanse of trees, with towering canopies that can reach up to 200 feet tall. These trees regulate the climate and provide habitats for a wide range of animal species. many of these plants are used for medicinal purposes. One of the most famous is the rubber tree, which was the source of the rubber industry in the late 19th century.
The Amazon rainforest is home to over 3,000 fish species with new species being discovered regularly. Some well-known fish species in the Amazon rainforest include the piranha, catfish, and electric eel. The Amazon River system is also home to various specialized fish species that have evolved unique adaptations to survive in their specific habitats. For example, the Amazonian dolphin, also known as the pink river dolphin, is a freshwater dolphin that is found only in the Amazon Basin. It is well-adapted to life in murky waters, with a highly developed sonar system that allows it to navigate and find prey. Indigenous people in the region highly depend
The rainforest is home to many species that can be dangerous to humans. Some of the largest predators found in the area include the black caiman, jaguar, cougar, and anaconda. In the river, electric eels can shock and potentially harm or kill humans, while piranhas are known for biting and causing injuries. Poison dart frogs have toxins in their flesh that can be harmful, and there are also many parasites and disease-carrying insects. Vampire bats can spread rabies, and there is a risk of contracting diseases like malaria, yellow fever, and dengue fever in the Amazon region.
DEFORESTATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE
The Amazon rainforest is facing many threats as deforestation is a major issue, with an estimated 17% of the forest already lost due to human activities such as logging, agriculture, and mining. Deforestation releases large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming and climate change
The clearing of trees and other vegetation in the Amazon basin, primarily for agricultural or industrial purposes, leads to the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services and contributes to global climate change.
The Amazon is also facing increasing threats from climate change, which is causing changes in weather patterns and droughts that can exacerbate the impacts of deforestation. The Amazon rainforest, which covers approximately 40% of South America, is home to an incredible array of plant and animal species. It is also a vital component of the Earth's climate system, absorbing and storing large amounts of carbon dioxide, which helps to regulate global climate patterns.
The rainforest is being cleared at an alarming rate, primarily to make way for agriculture, mining, and logging. As it comes with unbearable negative impacts on the environment and local communities. It will destroy vital habitats, disrupt ecological processes, and release large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to global climate change.
Deforestation also has social and economic consequences on indigenous communities who rely on the rainforest for their livelihoods, as are often displaced, and local economies can suffer as a result of the loss of natural resources.
Before 2015, a mere 8% of deforestation in the Amazon occurred within forests inhabited by indigenous peoples, whereas a staggering 88% took place within the remaining 50% of the region that is not designated as a protected area or indigenous territory.
Satellite data collected in 2018 by Prods, a deforestation monitoring program, revealed that deforestation in the Amazon rainforest had surged to its highest level in ten years. The destruction of 7,900 km2 (3,050 sq miles) of the rainforest occurred mainly in the states of Mato Grosso and Pará, and while Environment Minister Edson Duarte blamed illegal logging, critics suggest that expanding agriculture is also responsible. There are concerns that the rainforest will eventually reach a tipping point where it will no longer be able to generate sufficient rainfall to sustain itself. According to a November 2021 report by Brazil's INPE, deforestation increased by 22% over 2020 and is now at its highest level since 2006.
As of January 2019, the president of Brazil – Jair Bolsonaro – has made an executive order that allows the agriculture ministry to take responsibility for identifying, delimiting, and demarcating indigenous lands, a power that was previously held by the National Indian Foundation (FUNAI). This move has been criticized by indigenous groups and environmental organizations who fear it will lead to the destruction of more indigenous lands and the further encroachment of agricultural activities into the Amazon rainforest
The Amazon rainforest is a critical component of the Earth's climate system, storing vast amounts of carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen through photosynthesis.
Climate change is leading to changes in rainfall patterns, resulting in longer dry seasons and more frequent and severe droughts in the Amazon region. Climate change can disrupt the natural hydrological cycle of the Amazon rainforest, leading to changes in precipitation patterns, river flows, and water availability.
Climate change is leading to changes in rainfall patterns, resulting in longer dry seasons and more frequent and severe droughts in the Amazon region. Climate change can disrupt the natural hydrological cycle of the Amazon rainforest, leading to changes in precipitation patterns, river flows, and water availability.
Droughts and higher temperatures increase the risk of forest fires, which can have devastating impacts on the Amazon rainforest. Large-scale forest fires can release vast amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, exacerbating the effects of climate change.
Climate change disrupts the natural hydrological cycle of the Amazon rainforest, leading to changes in precipitation patterns, river flows, and water availability. This can have serious consequences for the region's biodiversity and ecosystem services, as well as for the millions of people who rely on the Amazon basin for their livelihoods.
Climate change is causing changes in temperature and precipitation patterns that can lead to the extinction of species, and alter the functioning of entire ecosystems.
The Amazon rainforest is one of the largest carbon sinks on the planet, absorbing and storing vast amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. However, as climate change accelerates, the rainforest is at risk of becoming a net source of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses, which could further accelerate global warming.
Sahara Desert Dust Windblown to the Amazon
Scientists have observed an increase in the amount of Sahara dust reaching the Amazon basin. The dust can be transported over long distances, crossing the Atlantic Ocean and reaching as far as the Caribbean, Central America, and South America. This phenomenon is known as the Saharan Air Layer (SAL), which is a layer of hot, dry, and dusty air that forms over the Sahara Desert during the summer months.
When the SAL reaches Amazon, it can have both positive and negative effects on the environment. On the one hand, dust can provide important nutrients, such as phosphorus and nitrogen, which are essential for plant growth. This can help to fertilize the soil and promote the growth of vegetation in areas that are otherwise nutrient-poor. In fact, some studies have suggested that the Sahara dust may play a key role in maintaining the biodiversity of the Amazon rainforest.
Impact of Early 21st-century Amazon Droughts
In 2005, parts of the Amazon basin experienced the worst drought in one hundred years.
These droughts had a significant impact on the rainforest ecosystem, causing widespread damage to plant and animal populations, as well as contributing to climate change. The trees and vegetation in the rainforest also absorb and release water, creating a unique microclimate that supports a vast array of plant and animal species.
During the early 21st century, the Amazon region experienced a prolonged period of below-average rainfall, resulting in widespread water stress and forest fires. The droughts were caused by a combination of natural climate variability and human-induced climate change, with deforestation and forest degradation exacerbating the effects of the droughts. The droughts had a significant impact on the Amazon rainforest, causing widespread damage to trees and other vegetation. Many trees were unable to survive the prolonged period of water stress, leading to widespread die-offs and a reduction in the forest's ability to store carbon dioxide. The droughts also led to an increase in forest fires, with many fires ignited by human activity, such as land clearing for agriculture and logging. The impact of the droughts was also felt in the wider climate system. The Amazon rainforest is a crucial part of the global water cycle, releasing vast amounts of water vapour into the atmosphere through evapotranspiration. During the droughts, the forest's ability to release water was significantly reduced, leading to a reduction in rainfall in other parts of South America.
2019 Fires
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The 2019 Amazon rainforest fires were a series of wildfires that burned across the Amazon rainforest in Brazil and several other South American countries, including Bolivia, Paraguay, and Peru. The fires began in late July and continued through October, with the peak of the fires occurring in August. The fires received widespread media coverage and sparked international concern about the state of the Amazon rainforest.
The fires had a significant impact on the Amazon rainforest and the environment as a whole. The Amazon rainforest is a vital part of the global ecosystem, producing approximately 20% of the world's oxygen and absorbing an estimated 2.4 billion tons of carbon dioxide annually. The fires released vast amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, exacerbating the already pressing issue of global warming.
CONSERVATION
In April 2019, the Ecuadorian court stopped oil exploration activities in 180,000 hectares (440,000 acres) of the Amazon rainforest. In July 2019, the Ecuadorian court forbade the government to sell territory with forests to oil companies.
In September 2019, the US and Brazil agreed to promote private-sector development in the Amazon. They also pledged a $100m biodiversity conservation fund for the Amazon led by the private sector.
A 2009 study found that a 4 °C rise (above pre-industrial levels) in global temperatures by 2100 would kill 85% of the Amazon rainforest while a temperature rise of 3 °C would kill some 75% of the Amazon
The Brazilian government has established protected areas and implemented policies to curb deforestation. Indigenous communities and environmental organizations have also worked to protect the Amazon.
Remote Sensing
The Amazon rainforest is one of the most important and diverse ecosystems in the world. The use of remote sensing technology has greatly improved conservationists' understanding of the Amazon basin, making it easier to assess the extent, location, and damage of deforestation in the area. Remote sensing is also the best and perhaps only possible way to study the Amazon on a large scale.
Indigenous tribes in the Amazon basin are also using remote sensing technology to protect their ancestral lands from commercial interests. Using handheld GPS devices and programs like Google Earth, members of the Trio Tribe in southern Suriname have mapped out their tribal lands to help strengthen their territorial claims. This is crucial because most tribes in the Amazon do not have clearly defined boundaries, making it easier for commercial ventures to target their territories.
To accurately map the Amazon's biomass and subsequent carbon-related emissions, the classification of tree growth stages within different parts of the forest is crucial. In 2006, researcher Tatiana Kuplich organized the trees of the Amazon into four categories: mature forest, regenerating forest [less than three years], regenerating forest [between three and five years of regrowth], and regenerating forest [eleven to eighteen years of continued development]. She used a combination of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and Thematic Mapper (TM) to accurately place the different portions of the Amazon into one of the four classifications.
SUMMARY
.jpg "Amazon rainforest")
The Amazon rainforest is facing many threats as deforestation is a major issue, with an estimated 17% of the forest already lost. The Amazon River, which runs through the rainforest, is the second-longest river in the world, stretching over 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometres) from its source in the Andes Mountains to its mouth in the Atlantic Ocean. The Amazon rainforest is often referred to as the "lungs of the Earth," as it produces over 20% of the world's oxygen.
Scientists continue to discover new species of medicinal plants with potential medical applications.
The Amazon rainforest regulates the Earth's climate, as it absorbs and stores large amounts of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming.
Deforestation releases large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming and climate change.
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